Context: Literary Devices

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Context: Literary Devices

In all of its facets the Bible is a book of literature containing a number of literary forms. What follows is a description of these forms or literary styles in an effort to assist the Bible student with another level of equipping for proper understanding.

Hebrew literature and poetry, not unlike its culture, is oriented to function, and thus tends to be instructional in its elements and style. Conversely, Greek or western literature and poetry focuses more on form and appearance, and thus tends to appeal to esthetics and the intellect. Thus, Hebrew literature tends to mirror its logic system, and Greek literature as well tends to mirror its logic system. This is not to say that there always exists clear and distinct lines of definition between the various forms of literary style within either the Hebrew or Greek, or for that matter, between the Hebrew and Greek, but rather that each style carries or has embedded in its original text unique formatting or elemental structure (in a sense, a type of ‘literary DNA,’ if you will) which, when understood, can be used to distinguish its source between either the Hebrew or Greek, and its intended meaning. This then can become a tool for use in interpretative endeavors.

Before going further into this sub-topic, it will be helpful to define several terms surrounding the material to follow.

1. Literature is defined as: the body of written works unique to a given language, culture or period.

2. Poetry is defined as: a piece of literature written in meter, or having metrical structure.

3. Prose is defined as: ordinary speech or writing, without metrical structure; commonplace expression or quality.

4. Meter (in poetry) is defined as: the basic rhythmic structure of a verse or line(s) of text within a verse. Many traditional verse forms prescribe a specific verse meter, or a certain set of metric alternating in a particular order. Metrical structure varies among differing linguistic (and therefore cultural) sources.

In difference with traditional and the more contemporary, western (Greek influenced) forms of poetry, where rhyming and meter are most commonly employed, Hebrew poetry uses a wide array of literary devices and forms, including various figures of speech.[1] The underlying objective of these forms is instructional. Descriptions of these, with examples, follow:

1. Parallelism. There generally exist three different forms of parallelism: synonymous, antithetic and synthetic.[2] The classic form of parallelism is usually observed in a passage where the second line or part either repeats or contrasts the thoughts of the first part. The purpose of parallelism is to provide intensity or to lend force and emphasis to the subject matter being discussed. By repeating or contrasting the second part from the first, the recipient becomes more aware or impressed with the writer’s argument, and is pulled into the flow of thought.

a. Synonymous Parallelism is when the same thought or concept is repeated using different words. Example: Psalm 36:5 reads, “Your mercy, O Lord, is in the heavens; Your faithfulness reaches to the clouds.” (see also Isaiah 13:7; Mat. 7:7-8). This form of parallelism is also known as doublets.

b. Antithetic Parallelism is when the second part of a line or verse provides the obverse side of the same thought. Example: Proverbs 10:1 reads, “A wise son makes a glad father, but a foolish son is the grief of his mother.” (see also Mat. 10:32-33).

c. Synthetic Parallelism (also seen as constructive) is when the second part adds something fresh to the first part, or otherwise explains the first part. Example: Proverbs 1:7 reads, The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge, but fools despise wisdom and instruction.” (see also Psalm 1:3, 19:8-11; Proverbs 3: 5,7).

From the above we see where parallelism can operate as an aid to exegesis, in that we can expect obscure words or phrases to be enlightened from words or phrases corresponding to them in the second, parallel clause(s).

2. Simile. A simile creates a comparison in which one thing resembles another, usually by employing the expression of “like” or “as.” The purpose of a simile is to impress in the mind of the recipient some resemblance or likeness for sake of emphasis. Example: Jeremiah 23:29 reads, “’Is not My word like a fire?’ says the Lord, ‘and like a hammer that breaks the rock in pieces?’” (see also Isaiah 55:9-11; Mark 1:10). Thus a simile is a straight forward comparison in which the things compared are not necessarily literal, but rather illustrative.

3. Metaphor. A metaphor is the description of something through use of words that do not literally apply to it. Metaphors make a comparison in which one thing either is, acts like, or represents another, even though the two are unalike. In contrast to simile, a metaphor omits the words like or as, and something is described as if it were actually something else. The purpose of metaphors is to illustrate through stronger description, an obvious exaggeration to make a point. Example: Jeremiah 50:6 reads, “My people have been lost sheep. Their shepherds have led then astray; they have turned them away on the mountains. They have gone from mountain to hill; they have forgotten their resting place.” (see also Gen. 7:11; Matthew 5:13; John 6:48). Using the latter example, we see where Yeshua is characterizing Himself as bread (in terms of sustenance and life), but of course it would be ridiculous to suggest the He is literally a loaf of bread.

4. Metonymy. A metonymy is a substitution of one word for another. The purpose of an metonymy is to illustrate a character or thing in terms of an institution or body, the latter of which is representative of the character or thing. Example: Jeremiah 18:18 reads, “Then they said, ‘Come let us devise plans against Jeremiah; for the law shall not perish from the priest, nor counsel from the wise, nor the word from the prophet…’” (see also Mat. 3:5; Mark 3:25-26). In contemporary terms, it often is said the White House has issued an executive order, but in fact it is the President of the United States who has made the decision. In this case what is meant is the residence of the President has been substituted for the President himself, in his capacity as Chief Executive Officer of the government.

5. Hyperbole. An hyperbole is a deliberate exaggeration, in which more is said or implied than is literally meant. Hyperbole is used to add emphasis, force or attention. Example: Genesis 13:16 reads, “And I will make your descendants as the dust of the earth; so that if a man could number the dust of the earth, then your descendants also could be numbered.” (see also 2 Samuel 1:23; Psalm 6:6; Mat. 5:29-30).

6. Irony. Irony is a type of ridicule expressed indirectly in the form of a compliment. It can be conveyed either in speech (via tone of voice, as in sarcasm) or in writing. It is an important rhetorical device that involves stating one thing while meaning the direct opposite. Example: 1 Kings 18:27 reads, “And so it was, at noon, that Elijah mocked them and said, ‘Cry aloud, for he is a god; either he is meditating, or he is busy, or he is on a journey, or perhaps he is sleeping and must be awakened.’” (see also 2 Samuel 6:20; Mark 7:9).

7. Personification. Personification is the act of ascribing human characteristics, actions or abilities to inanimate objects, or to animals. Its purpose is to illustrate a point through obviously unusual and non-literal means. Example: Isaiah 35:1 reads, “The wilderness and the wasteland shall be glad for them, and the desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose.” (see also Isaiah 55:12; Num 22:28-33).

8. Allegory. An allegory amounts to an extended metaphor in the form of a story. It describes one subject in words that more appropriately belong to another. To allegorize is to speak or write figuratively or symbolically in using events or characters to represent ideas, concepts or principles. The purpose of allegory is to illustrate a point, not to prove a point, however; or, not to support any Scriptural authority within the literal framework of the allegory itself. The Bible student must beware of over-extending an allegory, or of allegorizing a Scriptural principle that is, from the whole counsel of Elohim’s Word, a clear authoritative truth. This latter point is emphasized because it is within this realm that Christendom has erred in a number of its doctrines. For example, the concept of heaven has been misrepresented, viz., allegorized, to be a mysterious place somewhere in the sky above the clouds where Elohim resides, and where believers will be destined once the rapture[3] occurs. This teaching has conspicuously avoided any mention of the 1,000 year reign of Messiah Yeshua, wherein the saints will be priests of Yeshua, reigning with Him in the new heaven and earth (see Rev. 20:1-6; 2 Peter 3:13). And, we find in Revelation 21:1-3, and 10 verbiage indicating a new heaven and earth, the first heaven and earth having passed away (the present heaven and earth, including the sea, having been burned up in the great white throne judgment), with the New Jerusalem, the eternal holy city on earth

In another Scriptural example of allegory, we read in Galatians 4: 21-31 and, specifically, verse 24, where Paul describes the two sons of Abraham as being one of the bondwoman (Hagar) and one of the freewoman (Sarah), “…which things are symbolic,” or allegorical. It is from the Greek word for symbolic or figurative, allegoreo (Strong’s No. 238), that we derive the English word allegory.

9. Anthropomorphism. An anthropomorphism is the ascribing of human characteristics or actions to Elohim. To anthropomorphize, derived from two Greek words, means to give something the characteristics of a man. The purpose of anthropomorphisms found in the Biblical record is to aid the reader in understanding spiritual principles by using human or physical realities to explain the concepts. Humanity generally struggles with spiritual concepts, and in distinguishing between the spiritual and physical. Yet, it is the spiritual principles which Elohim wants us to understand, but knows we can more readily relate to these through the tangible, physical senses. Elohim of course is spirit, not flesh and blood. So, to anthropomorphize Him helps to explain spiritual realities. Caution is called for in use of this particular literary device, however, for it can easily mislead those who fail to look at the Word of Elohim beyond the purely literal perspective. For example: from Isaiah 59:1, we read “Behold, the Lord’s hand is not shortened, that it cannot save; nor His ear heavy, that it cannot hear.” Elohim of course does not possess a huge hand or ear in which to hear our pleas or to extend mercy in His saving grace. See also Psalm 8:3, 31:2; 2 Chronicles 16:9.

10. Anthropopathism. An anthropopathism is the ascribing of human emotions to Elohim. Similar to anthropomorphism, where human characteristics are ascribed to Elohim, an anthropopathism is in effect an attempt to place the human emotions on Elohim. The danger in this, once again, is the false limiting effect (in man’s mind) it can have on our infinite Creator Elohim. If understood for what it is, and not over-extended, it serves to aid the reader in grasping the spiritually infinite nature of Elohim. For example: from Genesis 6:6 we read, “And the Lord was sorry that He had made man on the earth, and He was grieved in His heart.” (see also Zechariah 8:1).

11. Litotes. Litotes is a literary device designed as a way of confirming the truth of something by denying its opposite. Indirectly, it says “yes” to something by saying “no” to the opposite. The purpose of Litotes is to confirm or clarify a statement by reinforcing the truth of an opposing statement. Litotes can be simple or compound. For example: from Revelation 3:5 we read, “He who overcomes shall be clothed in white garments, and I will not blot out his name from the Book of Life; but I will confess his name before My Father and before His angels.” In order to understand this we must first understand the meaning of “white garments.” Biblically speaking, the color white indicates a state of purity and holiness, as with the linen garments of the High Priest on the one day of the year, Yom Kippur or Day of Atonement (see Hebrews 9:7; Lev. 16:1-24), in which the High Priest enters the Holy of Holies to atone for Israel. Thus, in Rev. 3:5 we see that the overcomers spoken of are those who are in covenant relationship with Elohim, honoring His commandments and living out a life of Torah obedience. To paraphrase Rev. 3:5: those who are the overcomers (i.e., of Godly character and faithful service in this life: the redeemed) will not have their names blotted out from the Book of Life, but will be confessed before the Father. Actually Rev. 3:5 is a compound, inverse litotes in that it contains opening and ending affirmative statements, with a mid-statement in the negative sense, plus in this case it says “no,” or actually “not,” by saying “yes.” Litotes is commonly used, but is not a well-known literary device or figure of speech.

12. Synecdoche. In the literary device of synecdoche a portion is used to indicate the whole, or the whole is used to indicate a portion. The purpose of synecdoche is to emphasize a point, or to figuratively represent a portion or a whole of something by using its counterpart. For example: from Genesis 6:12 we read, “…for all flesh had corrupted their way on the earth.” Here ‘flesh’ is used for the whole person. Or, in John 3:16 we read, “For God so loved the world…” Here ‘world’ is used to represent all individual people of the world. And in 2 Timothy 3:16 we read, “All Scripture is given by inspiration of God…” Here ‘all Scripture’ is indicating all, both the Scriptures and the Apostolic Scriptures. Note here that at the time of Paul’s writing to Timothy the term “Scripture” could only have referred to the Scriptures (i.e., the Old Testament , so-called), because the Apostolic Scriptures had not yet been canonized. However, this does not detract from the fact that the Apostolic Scriptures were eventually and ultimately also penned under the inspiration of Elohim (see also Psalm 145:21; John12:19).

13. Euphemism. A euphemistic figure of speech substitutes an inoffensive or agreeable expression for one that may be offensive or distasteful. The purpose of euphemisms is to explain or illustrate a figure of speech (e.g., idioms). For example: we read in Genesis 15:15, “Now as for you, you shall go to your fathers in peace…” Here ‘go to your fathers in peace’ is a euphemism for physical death. In Acts 1:25 we read, “to take part in this ministry and apostleship from which Judas by transgression fell, that he might go to his own place.” Here ‘go to his own place’ is a euphemism for destined to hell. (see also Leviticus 18:6; John 2:25).

14. Pleonasm. A pleonasm is a figure of speech that employs an excessive amount of words to make an emphasis. Its purpose is to add force to a statement or to redundantly clarify by stating the obvious from the first part of the statement. For example: we read in Genesis 40:23, “Yet the chief butler did not remember Joseph, but forgot him. In Acts 2:30 we read, “Therefore, being a prophet, and knowing that God had sworn an oath to him…” Here, in the first example, ‘did not remember’ and ‘but forgot’ is redundant; and, in the second example, ‘had sworn’ and ‘an oath’ is a redundant statement. (see also Genesis 38:24; 2 Kings 20:1).

15. Repetition. Use of repetition can be done in words or phrases. Its purpose is to gain emphasis, or it is believed by some that in certain instances it can indicate the two witnesses of heaven and earth (see, e.g., Deut. 4:39). For example: we read in Exodus 3:4, “… God called to him from the midst of the bush and said, ‘Moses, Moses!’…” And in Psalm 77:16 we read, “The waters saw you, O God; the waters saw you, they were afraid…” Here, in the first example, ‘Moses, Moses!’ is a calling from Elohim to gain the attention of Moses at a critical moment, and as the two witnesses from heaven and earth. We see this also in Joshua 2:11, where we read, “…for the Lord your God, He is God in heaven above and on earth beneath.” In the second example we read the phrase ‘waters saw you’ repeated for emphasis (see also Psalm 136 and Matthew 5:3-11, where the same phrase is repeated a number of times; and in Mark 15:34 we see where Yeshua is repeating “Eloi, Eloi…(My God, My God)” to the Father in heaven).

16. Climax. In the literary device of climax there is presented an increasing list or series of words, actions or qualities that repeat, and climb to a crescendo. Its purpose is to draw the reader in and bring the central thrust home. For example: we read in Hosea 2:21-22, “It shall come to pass in that day that I will answer, says the Lord; I will answer the heavens, and they shall answer the earth. The earth shall answer with grain, with new wine, and with oil; and they shall answer Jezreel [literally, Elohim will sow, or plant].” In Romans 5:3-5 we read, “And not only that, but we also glory in tribulations, knowing that tribulation produces perseverance; and perseverance, character; and character, hope. Now hope does not disappoint…” In both of these examples we see an increasing listing of ‘answer,’ and then a repeating climb of tribulation, perseverance, character and ultimately hope, respectively. In the first example, and in the context of the northern kingdom of Israel, Yeshua is saying that on his return (‘in that day’) when He comes to rule and reign on earth, that the heavens will provide rain on the earth to produce fruit in abundance (blessing). Thus, for those who had not obtained mercy (Israel, called Jezreel), and who became ‘not My people,’ from verse 23, they would be replanted (blessing) in the Land by virtue of their repentant hearts, becoming ‘You are My people,’ and would thereafter say ‘You are my Elohim’ – the crescendo. In the second example, we read where if perseverance (trust in Elohim) is the response to tribulation, and through it character is built, resulting in hope; and that ultimately hope in Elohim will not disappoint – the crescendo. (see also Joel 1:3-4; James 1:14-15).

17. Obscure Figures of Speech. Enigmatic, or perplexing figures of speech (sometimes paralleling and akin to idioms) often state truth in an obscure way that must be searched out to find their meaning. Here, cultural, historic, and linguistic contexts become key tools to resolve these seemingly difficult passages. The purpose of these obscurities is not so much by design as a literary device, but more so the result of translation favoring a word-for-word objective. For example, in Genesis 49:10, we read an excerpt from Jacob’s blessing on his children and, specifically, that of Judah, as follows: “The scepter shall not depart from Judah, nor a lawgiver from between his feet, until Shiloh comes; and to Him shall be the obedience of the people.” This is something that must be broken down into its component meanings, after first determining the contextual implications of the verses. We know that a scepter is the staff or rod, and the symbol of royal authority and kingship. A lawgiver is one who issues statutes and rulings. Shiloh is the name often seen for Messiah, and means “to whom it belongs.” Thus, we see where Jacob prophesied a royal line would arise from Judah’s descendants (see Matt. 1:1-17), and that a law giver (John 1:1-4, 14) would always be in the ranks of Judah (Isaiah 9:1-7, 11:1-13), and that in the seed of the woman would come Messiah (Shiloh), and in those who are in covenant relationship with Him would be exhibited covenant faithfulness and obedience to His laws.

For another example, we read in Luke 11:34-36, “The lamp of the body is the eye. Therefore, when your eye is good, your whole body also is full of light. But when your eye is bad, your body also is full of darkness. Therefore take heed that the light which is in you is not darkness. If then your whole body is full of light, having no part dark, the whole body will be full of light, as when the bright shining of a lamp gives you light.” It has been said that we are what we see, meaning that what we allow our eyes to see is what we take in and become. David said, “I will set nothing wicked before my eyes; I hate the work of those who fall away… (Psalm 101:3).” Thus, a person who focuses on what is good (Elohim’s Word) is good and will shine Elohim’s goodness to others. Conversely, one who sets bad (false teaching of the world) before himself, is full of darkness, and will only mirror that false teaching (giving no light) to others. (see also Daniel 5:25-28).

18. Fables. A fable is a fictitious narrative in which either plants or animals are employed that speak or act like human beings. A fable is used to enforce a truth or provide a moral lesson. For example, in Judges 9:8-15 Jotham puts forth a story or fable of instruction, using trees as taking on the human ability of talking. In the story trees are personified for the purpose of indicting the Schehemites for choosing Abimelech as King over the northern kingdom of Israel. The interpretation is found in Judges 9:16-20. (see also 2 Kings 14:8-10, explained in vs. 11-16; Ezekiel 17:2-10, explained in vs. 11-21).

19. Symbols. Symbols are a form of representation in which one thing is used to represent another. A symbol is a literary device wherein a literal object is used to convey a truth, to present a lesson, or to point to the object of importance by way of symbology. For example, in Exodus 13:21-22 the pillar of cloud and fire symbolized Elohim’s glory and presence among the children of Israel in the wilderness. In Leviticus 17:11 and Deuteronomy 12:23-25 blood symbolized the life of an animal or human. And in Ezekiel 37:1-14 the vision of the dry bones symbolized the judgment on, and restoration of, Israel.

20. Types and Fore-Shadows. In a number of instances in the Bible one individual fore-shadows or acts as a type of another individual. For example, in Exodus 3:10 and 4:22-23, Moses acts as a type of Messiah Yeshua, fore-shadowing Messiah’s ultimate role on His first coming. And in John 1:29-31, John the Baptizer fulfills the role of fore-shadowing Messiah Yeshua when he states, “Behold! The Lamb of God who takes away the sin of the world. This is He of whom I said, ‘After me comes a Man who is preferred before me, for He was before me.’” In these and other instances the one who precedes the latter functions to provide a clue of what the latter will do, has done, or will do again.

21. Parables. Parables are generally simple stories that contain hidden meanings or analogies. In the Greek, the word for parable means “to place by the side of something.” In other words, a parable is used to compare or to juxtapose one thing with another; usually in the form of an earthly story that contains heavenly or spiritual meanings. The Master Yeshua often employed parables in teaching His disciples because He expected them to have spiritual understanding (although they did not always grasp the point). In correctly interpreting parables context is very important. Most parables have one main point or objective, but at times may contain one or two secondary lessons as well. Generally it is best to not try to interpret every aspect of a parable, because most often information within a parable, outside of its main point, is there to aide with the context. The more complex parables are usually explained in the text itself. There is a danger in spiritualizing or allegorizing parables, which has often resulted in false teaching or become the basis for errant theology. Yeshua has at times been accused of hiding the truth through use of parables. This is not the case at all. He never concealed any truths from people. But He did know that Kingdom principles taught through the parables would only be understood, and properly applied, by those of humbled hearts and spiritual discernment. To provide a few examples, let’s look first at a simple parable having only one point. In Matthew 18:10-14, we read of the Parable of the Lost Sheep. Here we see the point being that great rejoicing occurs in the heavens for each repentant heart that has come to find his or her Maker. There may be the subsidiary lesson of the care and mercy of the Shepherd, Yeshua, but this is not the point of the parable itself. And, to go beyond and outside of the main point by complaining about neglect of the other 99 sheep amounts to totally missing the lesson. Note, there is no explanation of this parable found in the text itself – it’s simply not needed. Another parable, more complex in its account, is found in Matthew 13:1-9, and known as the Parable of the Sower. Yeshua explains this parable in vs. 18-23. Note also that between these two aspects of the Parable of the Sower, Yeshus provides an explanation of parables in general, in vs. 10-15. Finally, an example of a more complex parable that is not explained is found in Luke 19:12-27, and known as the Parable of the Talents. Here, the context is important, being just prior to Yeshua’s triumphal entry into Jerusalem.

22. Chiastic Structure. A chiastic structure or scheme is a literary format wherein a pattern of usually[4] closely repeated verses are arranged around a central axis or theme. A story or narrative is divided into two halves, with the theme(s) of the first half of the literary device being repeated in the second half of the structure, but in reverse order. The first and second halves of the story each point the reader to the most important aspect, or axis, of the story, known as the central axis (X). The central axis is placed between the two halves in the overall ordering of the structure, and thus incorporates the format of :

ABC → X ← CBA

As an example, Genesis 45:1-17 is arranged in chiastic structure format, with the central axis being found in verse 6: two years of famine have past; five more to go. The beginning and ending verses (1 and 17) both address the subject of leaving. In verse 1, Joseph told the Egyptians to leave the room; in verse 17, Pharaoh told Joseph’s brothers to leave Egypt (but to return with Jacob, his family and all their belongings). The two verses surrounding the central axis are verses 5 and 7, both addressing the subject of Joseph being sent. In verse 5, Joseph was sent ahead to Egypt to be a provider for his family, and all of the known world. In verse 7, Joseph was sent ahead as a deliverer of his family, and the known world. For more examples, see Appendix III.

[1] See, e.g., Figures of Speech Used in the Bible, by E.W. Bullinger, Baker Book House, Reprint, 1968. [2] From the epoch work on Hebrew poetry by Lowth (b. ? – d. 1787), entitled De Sacra poesi Hebraeorum prelectiones, English translation by G. Gregory. [3] For an explanation of the rapture as taught by Christianity, and as conceptually presented in the Biblical text, see the Glossary. [4] However, some Chiastics are spread over a much greater portion of Scripture.